Shedding Some Light

by Mary Courtney

Daylight Saving Time arrived three weeks early this year. As intended, we have gained useful hours of light in the evening, creating the illusion of a longer day, and soon it will be light in the mornings too. For now the dark, early mornings of late winter, remind me of the challenges people have faced in the past to extend their days and light their work.

Beyond stars and moonlight, fires provided the first light after dark. It is little wonder that the hearth was the heart of the home in past centuries, the obvious, family gathering place and source of warmth, cooked food and the glow of firelight. Before candles became commonplace, oil-rich "fat wood" or "candle fir" splinters were stripped from trees and lighted, creating some of the first torches. Another source of artificial light was the tall, cylindrical rush, juncus effusus, which grows near marshy land or ponds. Gathered, dried and soaked in fat or oil it burns with a smoky flame. Burning fat for light, whether from candle fir or rushes, required holders to protect hands and make the light portable. Eventually oil lamps were fashioned from stone, clay or bronze and other metals; these lamps are essentially containers for fat. Lamps could be re-filled with oil or fat and were portable and durable.

The Romans first dipped tallow candles. They were inexpensive, readily available and easy to make. Tallow is the body fat from beef or mutton, i.e. the fat lying between the skin and muscle - distinguished from lard, which is the fat around interior organs, like the kidneys, which is more often used in cooking. Pork fat, while fine for soap, is too soft for candles.

On family farms animals were slaughtered and butchered in the autumn, a messy, smelly outdoor activity most suited to cold, but not freezing weather. There were fewer flies at this time of year also. Fat rendered in large vats of water required less monitoring than frying, which could result in burned fat. The pot with water and fat could be left on a low flame overnight. Any remaining meat solids would sink to the bottom. (This also explains why fat people are more buoyant in the water!) The fat rendered in this way hardens when cooled and is virtually odorless and very white. It keeps for years and stays relatively hard even at room temperature

To make candles, tallow must be melted in a pot large enough to accommodate the length of wick desired. Interestingly, the fat is not kept over a flame. If kept too hot, the melted tallow will strip off subsequent layers of fat before they can adhere and the candle takes on a bean shape, being tapered at both ends. Dipped tallow candles "build" the same way wax candles do and need 40 to 50 "dips." The best weather for candle making outdoors would be about 38 degrees and breezy. The brisk temperature hardens the fat on the wick and the wind helps to dry and set up the candle for the next dip.

We know that the best wicks are made from braided cotton fibers. Cotton burns cleaner than linen and braiding makes a wick that bends into the flame to consume itself, requiring less trimming.

The Romans first dipped tallow candles. They were inexpensive, readily available and easy to make. Tallow is the body fat from beef or mutton, i.e. the fat lying between the skin and muscle - distinguished from lard, which is the fat around interior organs, like the kidneys, which is more often used in cooking. Pork fat, while fine for soap, is too soft for candles.

The quest for better lighting centered around making candles that dripped and smoked less and burned brighter and more slowly. To this end beeswax, and spermaceti (fat from the sperm whale) candles were ideal, but very expensive. Spermaceti candles are the benchmark for determining "candle power." In 1948 the Sperm whale was listed as endangered and the last remaining spermaceti on hand was made into candles. Haverford Township Historical Society member and Past Master, Clarissa Dillon, who presented an excellent tallow candle workshop at the Thomas Massey House last year, bought one pair of these candles at auction, paying $48!

Alum was first added to fat to make candles burn more slowly and take on a somewhat "waxier" consistency. In 1823, stearin added to the fat yielded firmer, less smoky candles, which burned brighter. In the late 19th century, paraffin - a by product of the petro-chemical industry - was added to obtain similar results.

Bayberries were found to be very waxy and when large quantities were boiled they yielded a wax both pleasant smelling and green colored. These surprisingly were "poor man"s candles" because while they could be made for free, were labor intensive. The children of farm families gathered the many tiny berries needed. Today's "bayberry" candles have little or no real bayberry wax and are scented wax candles.

Some interesting facts gathered from candle history:

• The Tallow Chandler Guild was founded in 1462.
• Both the candle-making and soap-making require tallow. These skills were frequently combined in one family business. Benjamin Franklin's family were chandlers in Boston. Another example is Proctor, a chandler and Gamble, a maker of soap, became Proctor & Gamble.
• In the 17th c. the candle tax was repealed in England to stimulate the candle trade. Farmers continued to use rush lamps with their free fuel.
• Hans C. Andersen wrote a charming short story, "Lysene" - "The Candles" translated by Jean Herschalt about a dipped tallow candle and a molded beeswax candle.
• For a delightful article on the history of lighting, visit www.bergencountyhistory.org